Herbal Extracts with Relatively More Evidence

These herbal extracts have a relatively larger body of clinical research data.

1. Green Tea Extract

Green tea extract is one of the most scientifically substantiated. Its key active component is catechins, particularly epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). EGCG works by inhibiting the enzyme that breaks down norepinephrine in the body, thereby prolonging the action of this metabolism-boosting neurotransmitter. This leads to a mild increase in the body’s thermogenesis and resting energy expenditure, while prioritizing the mobilization of fat as an energy source.

A pooled analysis of multiple randomized controlled trials indicates that consistent intake of green tea extract over weeks to months can help subjects achieve a small but statistically significant reduction in body weight and fat mass. The average effect is approximately an additional loss of 1-2 kg.

2. Garcinia Cambogia Extract

The main active substance in Garcinia cambogia extract is hydroxycitric acid (HCA). Its theoretical mechanism is very clear: it inhibits “ATP-citrate lyase,” a key enzyme in the process of converting carbohydrates into body fat. In theory, this could force the body to reduce fat storage and potentially increase liver glycogen synthesis, thereby sending satiety signals to the brain.

However, several clinical studies conducted later have been unable to demonstrate a consistent, important reduction in weight compared to previous studies. Although its theory sounds very logical, the intricateness of human metabolism has made the real efficiency of HCA for weight loss extremely controversial. The scientific community currently holds a cautious, even skeptical view of its effectiveness. Common side effects include headache, nausea, and gastrointestinal discomfort.

3. Green Coffee Bean Extract

The star component of green coffee bean extract is chloro­genic acid. Its action has a focus not directly on burning fat, but possibly on the regulation of glucose metabolism. Chlorogenic acid is believed to inhibit glucose absorption in the intestines and affect glucose release in the liver, helping to smooth out blood sugar spikes after meals. Stable blood sugar levels reduce the sharp secretion of insulin, a primary hormone responsible for fat storage. Thus, such indirect metabolic regulation might have an auxiliary effect on weight management. It is important to note that most products of green coffee bean contain caffeine, and their effects result from the combined chlorogenic acid and caffeine.

4. Moringa

The rationale behind the use of Moringa to facilitate weight management is more nutritional in nature, involving the strengthening of general health. Moringa leaf powder contains protein, dietary fiber, vitamins A and C, minerals such as calcium and potassium, and antioxidants in rich amounts. Its action is not in powerful fat burning but rather providing long-lasting satiety, with its high fiber and high protein content, thereby reducing snacking. Simultaneously, its rich nutrient profile helps ensure the body has sufficient “fuel” for metabolic functions during calorie control, avoiding metabolic slowdowns that may come from malnutrition. Additionally, the anti-inflammatory properties may help alleviate chronic inflammation associated with obesity.

Herbal Extracts That Work by Suppressing Appetite or Increasing Fullness

The principle of action for this category of extracts is more direct and physical, primarily affecting digestive tract functions to generate satiety signals, thereby naturally reducing caloric intake.

1. Psyllium Husk

The mode of action for this class of extracts is more direct and physical, acting principally on digestive tract functions to produce satiety signals and hence, naturally decreasing caloric intake. It can absorb many times its weight in water when mixed with water, expanding to form a viscous, gel-like substance. This gel occupies space in the stomach, physically stretching the stomach walls and sending a strong “full” signal to the brain’s satiety center. It also significantly delays gastric emptying, prolonging the feeling of fullness. In fact, several studies confirm that an adequate amount of psyllium husk intake with plentiful water before a meal can effectively reduce voluntary food intake at the next meal. Besides appetite control, it also helps regulate bowel movements, improves constipation, and aids in stabilizing blood sugar and lowering cholesterol levels.

The golden rule for its safe use is: it must be taken with at least 300 ml of water, and adequate fluids must be consumed throughout the day; otherwise, it may cause intestinal obstruction.

2. Guar Gum

Guar gum works on a similar principle to psyllium husk, also being a potent soluble viscous fiber. The molecular weight of intact guar gum is too large, making it prone to cause bloating and obstruction. Therefore, for use in dietary supplements, it undergoes a specific enzymatic hydrolysis process to become “partially hydrolyzed,” making it more soluble and safer while retaining its thickening properties. It forms a viscous solution in the intestines, delaying gastric emptying and the absorption rate of nutrients, thereby extending satiety. Some studies suggest that consuming partially hydrolyzed guar gum before meals can increase satiety and reduce subsequent food intake. Its effectiveness might be slightly less than that of psyllium husk, but its tolerability might be better for some individuals. Similarly, adequate water intake is a prerequisite for its safe and effective use.

Table 1. List of herbal extracts that aid in weight loss

A Final Note

When choosing herbal extracts, priority should be given to categories with relatively mild mechanisms of action and a better safety record, such as green tea extract or psyllium husk. It is essential to recognize that the fundamental path to weight management cannot be bypassed by any supplement. That path involves establishing and consistently maintaining a balanced nutritional diet pattern, increasing daily physical activity, ensuring quality sleep, and managing stress levels.

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Ectoine vs. Niacinamide: Different Origins

Ectoine is derived from halophilic microorganisms and serves as a protective substance that enables these organisms to survive in high-salt environments. Its core capability lies in protection. This ingredient forms a stable hydrating shield around cells—think of it as an invisible protective suit for skin cells. This helps block external stressors such as UV rays, high temperatures, dryness, and pollution.

Niacinamide, on the other hand, is a derivative of vitamin B3 and a naturally occurring coenzyme in the human body. It actively participates in the skin’s metabolic processes. By regulating sebum production, blocking melanin transfer, and promoting barrier repair, it works to improve skin condition.

In short, Ectoine acts as a guardian for the skin, while niacinamide functions more like a regulator.

Ectoine vs. Niacinamide: Efficacy Comparison

Soothing & Repair

Both ingredients offer soothing and reparative benefits, but their mechanisms differ.

Ectoine focuses on “shielding from damage.” Through its unique water-binding mechanism, it quickly relieves dryness and tightness, making it especially suitable for immediate barrier damage caused by environmental factors.

Niacinamide’s repair approach is about “rebuilding.” By promoting the synthesis of lipids such as ceramides, it strengthens the skin barrier from within. These effects typically become noticeable after several weeks of consistent use.

Moisturization

Ectoine regulates osmotic pressure. It is a hydrophilic substance with a highly polar molecular structure. Despite its small molecular weight, it binds with surrounding water molecules to form a hydrating shell around cells and proteins, reducing water loss. This provides stable, long-lasting moisture even in dry, hot, or harsh conditions, often leaving a light, non-sticky feel.

Ectocin High-Efficiency Moisturizing

Niacinamide moisturizes by enhancing the skin’s own functions. It boosts the skin’s natural water retention by promoting barrier lipid synthesis and reducing transepidermal water loss. Additionally, it increases natural moisturizing factors within the skin, addressing dryness from the inside out. Its approach focuses on fundamentally improving the skin’s hydration capacity.

Anti-Aging & Brightening

In anti-aging and brightening, niacinamide has a clear advantage. It effectively improves uneven skin tone, fades acne marks and spots, and stimulates collagen production. Niacinamide is widely recognized as a powerful brightening and early-aging prevention agent.

Ectoine’s anti-aging benefits come indirectly through protection. By shielding cells from environmental damage—especially UV radiation—it helps delay photoaging. However, it does not directly brighten skin or boost collagen synthesis.

Tolerance & Suitability

Both are generally well-tolerated, but Ectoine is suitable for almost all skin types, including extremely sensitive and post-procedure skin, thanks to its exceptional mildness. Niacinamide is also gentle, though a small number of users may experience intolerance to trace amounts of nicotinic acid and may need to gradually build tolerance.

Summary

Table 1. Differences Between Ectoine and Niacinamide

Simply put, when your skin is exposed to sun or harsh weather, Ectoine provides immediate buffering and protection. For concerns like excess oil, dullness, or enlarged pores related to internal metabolism, niacinamide offers more targeted regulation.

Stanford Chemicals Company supplies Ectoine, niacinamide, hyaluronic acid, ceramides, and various herbal extracts for skincare. Contact us to learn more about beauty and wellness ingredients.

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What Vitamins Does Your Body Need?

The vitamins you need to supplement mainly include fat-soluble vitamins (B vitamins, vitamin C) and water-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, K). Each vitamin has its own unique functions:
• Vitamin A: Maintains vision, skin, and mucous membrane health
• B Vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12): Involved in energy metabolism and nervous system function
• Vitamin C: Antioxidant, boosts immunity, promotes collagen synthesis
• Vitamin D: Promotes calcium absorption and maintains bone health
• Vitamin E: Antioxidant, protects cell membranes
• Vitamin K: Supports blood clotting

We’ve covered each vitamin in detail here: Vitamin Guide: 14 Important Vitamins for Health

Don’t Take Vitamins Randomly! Check What You’re Deficient In

Blindly supplementing vitamins not only wastes money but may also pose health risks. Excess fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) can accumulate in the body and cause toxicity. The best approach is to observe your body’s signals first, then adjust your diet or supplementation accordingly.

1. Premature Graying of Hair (Not Age-Related)

Possible nutrient shortfalls: Folate (B9), vitamin B6, copper, iron.

Melanin production needs multiple enzymes to work properly. Folate and B6 assist in creating the base materials for pigment. Copper is part of the tyrosinase enzyme, which is involved in coloring. Low iron can reduce oxygen flow to hair follicles, slowing down their cell activity.

2. Dry, Rough, or Bumpy Skin

Often linked to low levels of: Vitamin A and vitamin B2 (riboflavin).

Vitamin A helps skin cells develop correctly; without it, skin may become dry and develop small rough patches. Vitamin B2 aids in tissue repair, so insufficient amounts can impact skin and mucous membrane health.

3. Unusual Hair Loss (When Not Hereditary)

May signal a deficiency in: Lysine and vitamin E.

Lysine is a building block for keratin, the main protein in hair. Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant, supporting scalp circulation and shielding hair follicles from oxidative stress.

4. Frequent Runny Nose, Colds, or Low Immunity

Could point to low: B vitamins (especially B6, B12, folate) and vitamin C.

B vitamins help with energy and immune responses, affecting how well your body makes antibodies and immune cells. Vitamin C strengthens certain immune cells, protects the lining of your respiratory tract, and can ease allergy-like symptoms.

5. Yellowish Patches on Eyelids

Sometimes related to low: Vitamin E.

Research suggests these patches may be tied to how your body handles fats and oxidative stress. Vitamin E, a fat-soluble antioxidant, might help with this balance. Keep in mind, though, these patches can also indicate high cholesterol, so it’s good to get checked by a doctor.

6. Dull, Brittle, or Easily Splitting Hair

Possibly lacking in: Vitamin E.

Hair needs natural oils to stay protected. Without enough vitamin E, scalp oil quality may drop, and hair becomes less able to handle sun exposure and other oxidative damage.

7. Swollen or Bleeding Gums

Often linked to insufficient: Vitamin C and vitamin K.

Vitamin C helps produce collagen, keeping gum tissue strong and less likely to bleed. Vitamin K supports blood clotting, so a shortage can mean gums bleed more easily and take longer to stop.

8. Persistent Bad Breath

May indicate low intake of: B vitamins and vitamin C.

Not getting enough B vitamins can disrupt digestion and encourage oral bacteria overgrowth. Low vitamin C may contribute to gum problems, which can also make bad breath worse.

9. Acne Breakouts, Freckles, or Uneven Skin Tone

Commonly tied to low: Vitamin C.

As an antioxidant, vitamin C helps limit melanin production and can lighten dark spots. It also promotes healing and reduces inflammation, which may help calm acne.

10. Noticeable Eye Bags or Dark Circles

May be associated with low: Vitamin E.

The skin around your eyes is thin, so poor blood flow can lead to pooled blood and discoloration. Vitamin E supports healthy circulation and, through its antioxidant effect, may help reduce pigment buildup.

11. Recurring Acne

Potential deficiencies: Vitamin E and vitamin A.

Vitamin A helps control skin cell turnover and oil production — too little can cause pores to clog. Vitamin E helps soothe inflammation and protects skin from oxidative damage. Note: High-dose vitamin A (such as isotretinoin) requires a prescription — never self-prescribe high amounts due to toxicity risks.

12. Beriberi

Caused by a severe lack of: B vitamins, particularly vitamin B1 (thiamine).

Beriberi symptoms include tiredness, poor appetite, muscle weakness, tingling in hands and feet, and in serious cases, heart issues. Vitamin B1 is key for turning food into energy — without it, nerves and muscles don’t get the fuel they need.

How to Supplement Vitamins?

The safest and most effective way is through a balanced, varied diet. Vitamins in natural foods exist in complex forms, making them easier for the body to absorb and use, with a lower risk of overdose.

We’ve compiled a list of foods rich in various vitamins.

If you come across foods you dislike or are averse to, aside from holding your nose and forcing them down, you can also opt for vitamin supplements.

For those who avoid all meat, fish, eggs, and dairy, a B12 supplement is essential. People who dislike leafy greens may opt for supplements focused on folate (B9), vitamin K, vitamin A (precursors), magnesium, and dietary fiber.

Stanford Chemical Company (SCC) has over 16 years of experience in the production and sales of plant-based chemicals, pharmaceutical intermediates, and related products. Our offerings include hyaluronic acid, herbal extracts, vitamins, food additives, nutraceutical ingredients, and more—over 800 products in total. If you’re interested, feel free to request a quote or learn more.

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1. Injectable Hydrogels

Hyaluronic acid can form injectable hydrogels through physical or chemical crosslinking. These gels solidify inside the body under normal conditions or in response to stimuli like temperature or pH. Because they hold a lot of water and mimic natural tissue structure, they are often used in minimally invasive surgery, tissue repair, and slow-release drug delivery. For instance, HA hydrogels can be injected into joints to relieve osteoarthritis—they lubricate the joint and support cartilage healing.

Figure 1. Hyaluronic acid hydrogels

Cross-linked Hyaluronic Acid​ Gel HA Powder

2. Nano Drug Carriers

Hyaluronic acid can be turned into nanoparticles or micelles using methods like self-assembly or emulsification. These tiny carriers help deliver drugs precisely to targets. Since HA naturally binds to CD44 receptors—which are overexpressed on many cancer cells—it’s useful for delivering chemotherapy drugs, nucleic acids, or proteins directly to tumors. This targeted approach helps reduce side effects.

Figure 2. Formulations of hyaluronic acid (HA)-based nanomaterials.[1]

3. Electrospun Fiber Mats

By mixing hyaluronic acid with other polymers like collagen or polycaprolactone and electrospinning them, we can create nanofiber mats. These mats have a large surface area and a structure similar to natural fibers. They work well as wound dressings, vascular grafts, or nerve guides, helping cells attach, grow, and repair tissue.

Figure 3. Electrospun Fiber Membranes^[2]

4. 3D Printing Bioinks

Hyaluronic acid is often used in 3D bioprinting because of its flow properties and bioactivity. When modified—for example, with methacrylate groups—it can be cured with light to print detailed tissue scaffolds. These are used to engineer cartilage, skin, blood vessels, and more.

Figure 4. Hyaluronic acid for 3D bioprinting tissue engineering applications.[3]

5. Films & Coatings

Hyaluronic acid can be applied as a thin film or coating onto implants like artificial joints or heart stents. Techniques like spin-coating or grafting help create these layers. The coating improves compatibility with the body, reduces inflammation and scarring, and helps prevent bacterial growth.

6. Dissolving Microneedles

Hyaluronic acid can be made into small dissolving microneedles that carry active ingredients like vitamins, vaccines, or medicines. These microneedles painlessly pierce the top layer of skin and then dissolve, releasing what they carry. They’re used in skincare, vaccination, and managing chronic conditions.

Figure 5. Dissolvable hyaluronic acid microneedles (MNs)[4]

7. Tissue Glues & Sealants

Chemically modified HA—for example, with aldehyde or dopamine groups—can act as a strong biological adhesive, even on wet surfaces. It’s used in surgery to seal tissues, stop bleeding, or close leaks (like in spinal fluid), often replacing stitches and supporting faster healing.

8. Stimuli-Responsive Smart Materials

By tweaking its structure, hyaluronic acid can be designed to respond to specific body signals such as pH, enzymes, or redox changes. For example, an HA-based nanogel can break down quickly in the acidic, enzyme-rich tumor environment to release drugs right where they’re needed.

9. Composite Scaffolds

Combining HA with materials like hydroxyapatite, bioglass, or synthetic polymers produces strong, porous scaffolds. These are especially useful in bone repair—they provide mechanical support while encouraging bone cell growth and integration.

10. Eye Care Products

Hyaluronic acid is used in eye drops, gels, and corneal repair films because it retains moisture and lubricates well. It helps treat dry eyes, assists during cataract surgery, and aids in healing surface injuries. It can also extend how long a drug stays on the eye surface.

Summary

From the discussion of the ten materials above, it may be gleaned that research and current applications of HA have focused mainly on three aspects: (1) preparation of various derivatives and hydrogels using functional groups such as hydroxyls, carboxyls, and acetamido groups in HA molecules; (2) taking advantage of the interaction between HA molecules and receptors on the surface of cancer cells by using HA and its derivatives as drug carriers for targeted cancer treatment; and (3) developing further applications of HA hydrogels in fields like tissue engineering based on its close relationship with human physiological activities.

For more information on hyaluronic acid applications, check out Stanford Chemicals Company.

[1] Kim, J. H., Moon, M. J., Kim, D. Y., Heo, S. H., & Jeong, Y. Y. (2018). Hyaluronic Acid-Based Nanomaterials for Cancer Therapy. Polymers, 10(10), 1133. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10101133

[2] Gruppuso, M., Iorio, F., Turco, G., Marsich, E., & Porrelli, D. (2022). Hyaluronic acid/lactose-modified chitosan electrospun wound dressings – Crosslinking and stability criticalities. Carbohydrate Polymers, 288, 119375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119375

[3] Ding, Y., Zhang, X., Mi, C., Qi, X., Zhou, J., & Wei, D. (2022). Recent advances in hyaluronic acid-based hydrogels for 3D bioprinting in tissue engineering applications. Smart Materials in Medicine, 4, 59-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smaim.2022.07.003

[4] Fonseca, D. F., Vilela, C., Pinto, R. J., Bastos, V., Oliveira, H., Catarino, J., Faísca, P., Rosado, C., Silvestre, A. J., & Freire, C. S. (2020). Bacterial nanocellulose-hyaluronic acid microneedle patches for skin applications: In vitro and in vivo evaluation. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 118, 111350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2020.111350

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Fig 1. Chondroitin Sulfate Market, Grand View Research

Food Supplements

Food supplements are the leading market for chondroitin sulfate. In 2024, this area accounted for 35.0% of the total market revenue, the largest share. This aligns with the global aging trend and growing health awareness. The primary use of chondroitin sulfate as a dietary supplement is for joint health. It addresses problems like osteoarthritis, joint pain, and joint stiffness. It can relieve symptoms, protect and repair joint cartilage, and improve joint function. Usually, people take it together with glucosamine. However, chondroitin sulfate is most suitable for patients with mild to moderate joint cartilage wear. For severe patients, intra-articular hyaluronic acid injections are a better choice.

Hyaluronic Acid VS. Glucosamine VS. Chondroitin: Which Is Best for Joints?

Besides joint health, chondroitin sulfate as a dietary supplement also provides other benefits.

• Skin Health: It can moisturize the skin, increase skin elasticity, and reduce wrinkles.
• Eye Health: Chondroitin sulfate is also present in the cornea and vitreous body. It has water-retaining and structural maintenance functions.
• Urinary System Health: The bladder wall also contains similar glycosaminoglycans, one of which is chondroitin sulfate. One theory suggests supplementing with it may help repair the bladder lining and alleviate conditions like interstitial cystitis.

Pharmaceuticals

Chondroitin sulfate is used differently in the pharmaceutical industry compared to food supplements. In food supplements, it is mainly a maintenance ingredient. In pharmaceuticals, however, its use is more precise and strict. It is usually used as an active ingredient or a key excipient in medicines.

As an active ingredient, it primarily treats osteoarthritis.

Chondroitin sulfate itself has biochemical activity. It offers various benefits like promoting cartilage repair, fighting inflammation, and providing antioxidants. In many countries in Europe and Asia (such as Italy, Spain, Greece, South Korea, etc.), chondroitin sulfate is approved as a prescription drug for treating osteoarthritis. In the United States, it is used as an over-the-counter drug.

As a pharmaceutical excipient, it is used in ophthalmic surgery viscoelastics and drug delivery.

“Viscoelastics” for ophthalmic surgery are a very high-value application of chondroitin sulfate in pharmaceuticals. During intraocular surgeries like cataract surgery and corneal transplantation, doctors need to maintain the shape of the eyeball and protect delicate intraocular tissues. Combining chondroitin sulfate with sodium hyaluronate creates a sterile viscoelastic agent, which protects the eye from damage.

Chondroitin sulfate can also be used as a carrier in sustained-release formulations. It controls the release rate of drugs.

Animal Feed

In the animal feed market, the core use of chondroitin sulfate is as a joint health additive. This logic is consistent with its use in human dietary supplements. However, for farmed animals, the economic benefits are more prominent. For farmed animals like pigs and laying hens, adding chondroitin sulfate to feed can effectively prevent limb and hoof diseases and joint wear caused by long-term weight-bearing or cage farming.

Meanwhile, in the pet food sector, chondroitin sulfate is widely added to dog and cat food or specific nutritional supplements. The aim is to maintain the health of pet joint cartilage and alleviate pain and stiffness caused by osteoarthritis. This improves pets’ mobility and quality of life.

Cosmetics

In cosmetics, chondroitin sulfate mainly acts as a highly effective moisturizer and skin repair agent. Its application is not as widespread as hyaluronic acid. However, due to its unique biochemical properties, it is increasingly used in skincare products. It is increasingly featured in skincare products for its ability to provide deep hydration and promote skin regeneration. Furthermore, the benefits of chondroitin sulfate extend to hair and eye care. It is used in shampoos to moisturize the scalp and hair, and in eye creams to hydrate and repair the sensitive skin around the eyes, effectively reducing the appearance of fine lines and dryness.

Conclusion

In summary, chondroitin sulfate is a versatile ingredient, and it serves important roles in many industries. People use it for joint health and other benefits. Doctors use it in precise medical treatments. It also helps to keep animals’ joints healthy.

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Benefits of Chondroitin Sulfate

Extracted chondroitin sulfate is a white or off-white powder. It is hygroscopic, easily soluble in water, has low viscosity, and is readily absorbed. Its primary functions include lubricating joints, slowing cartilage degeneration, and alleviating pain and stiffness caused by arthritis. Studies have shown that chondroitin sulfate also has protective effects on tissues such as skin[1] and the cardiovascular system[2].

Hyaluronic Acid VS. Glucosamine VS. Chondroitin: Which Is Best for Joints?

What Are the Sources of Chondroitin Sulfate?

Traditionally, chondroitin sulfate is primarily extracted from animal tissues. Terrestrial animals and marine organisms are the main sources.

• Terrestrial animals: Cartilage from cattle, pigs, and chickens.
• Marine organisms: Cod, squid, and sea cucumbers.

The structure of chondroitin sulfate can vary depending on the species of origin, and even between different tissues within the same species.

Fig 1. chondroitin sulphate production[3]

Before the mid-1990s, the raw materials for CS used in Europe and North America mainly came from locally raised animals like cattle and sheep. Later, due to concerns about Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE, or mad cow disease), countries in Europe and America began sourcing CS globally, processed from pig, fish, and poultry cartilage.

Currently, commercially available chondroitin sulfate is mainly extracted from animal cartilage. Additionally, emerging biosynthetic technologies (such as microbial fermentation) are also being used to produce high-purity CS, especially for pharmaceutical applications.

How Is Chondroitin Sulfate Extracted?

Common extraction methods include the neutral salt method, alkaline extraction, and enzymatic hydrolysis. The extraction principle leverages the differing solubility characteristics of chondroitin sulfate and protein under various conditions to separate it from the protein.

1. Neutral Salt Method: Chondroitin sulfate products extracted this way are relatively white in color and meet national standard indicators. It does not cause environmental pollution. However, the yield rate is low, easily leading to significant waste of raw materials.
2. Alkaline Extraction Method: This production process involves cumbersome steps and has a long cycle, typically requiring 3-5 days. Furthermore, product quality and yield are unstable. During production, the product is also prone to significant degradation.
3. Enzymatic Hydrolysis Method: As the name suggests, this method uses biological enzyme preparations to digest the cartilage. Commonly used enzymes include trypsin (from pancreas), papain (extracted from papaya), and alkaline protease (from Bacillus licheniformis). Trypsin has issues with enzyme activity instability, which is not conducive to standardized production. Using papain or alkaline protease alone results in low yield of the extracted chondroitin product. Therefore, many manufacturers use specialized composite enzyme products for chondroitin sulfate extraction to achieve standardized production and reduce costs.

Biosynthetic Chondroitin Sulfate

Although animal extraction is a mature method, it faces challenges such as limited raw material supply, potential pathogen contamination, ethical concerns, and uncontrollable structure. Consequently, biosynthetic technologies have emerged.

Biosynthetic chondroitin is primarily produced through the following pathways:

1. Microbial Engineering: Using genetic engineering techniques, genes encoding enzymes required for CS synthesis are introduced into microorganisms like E. coli, enabling these microbes to function as efficient cell factories producing structurally uniform chondroitin sulfate.
2. Mammalian Cell Culture: Specific cell lines are cultured in controlled bioreactors to secrete the desired chondroitin sulfate. Products from this method more closely resemble the natural structure found in the human body.
3. In Vitro Enzymatic Synthesis: Purified enzyme systems are used in test tubes to catalyze the step-by-step synthesis of chondroitin sulfate chains, allowing for precise structural customization.

Biosynthesis carries no risk of animal-derived pathogen contamination, offers more stable and environmentally friendly production, and is easily scalable. Although the cost is currently higher, its advantages in purity and safety show great potential in high-value-added pharmaceutical fields.

Conclusion

The sourcing of chondroitin sulfate is undergoing a transformation “from natural extraction to artificial creation.” Traditionally, it was extracted from the cartilage of animals like pigs, cattle, and sharks. However, facing the inherent limitations of animal sources, biosynthetic technologies—represented by microbial engineering and cell culture—are opening a new path for chondroitin with their unique advantages of controllable structure, safety, and purity. For more information on chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid, please refer to Stanford Chemicals Company (SCC).

[1] Ewald, C. Y. (2021). Drug Screening Implicates Chondroitin as a Potential Longevity Pill. Frontiers in Aging, 2, 741843. https://doi.org/10.3389/fragi.2021.741843

[2] Zhao, R. R., & Matthew , A. J. (2018). Targeting Chondroitin Glycosaminoglycans to Treat Cardiac Fibrosis in Pathological Remodeling. Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. https://doi.org/doi/10.1161/circulationaha.117.030353

[3] Sushanta Kumar Saha, Yin Zhu, Patrick Murray, Lena Madden, Future proofing of chondroitin sulphate production: Importance of sustainability and quality for the end-applications, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, ISSN 0141-8130, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.131577.

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Hyaluronic acid is a natural linear polysaccharide occurring in the human body. Its molecular weight varies from several thousand to several million Daltons. High-molecular-weight hyaluronic acid (HMW-HA) has excellent moisture-retention and lubrication properties; thus, it can be widely used in cosmetics and medicine. However, recent research has revealed that low-molecular-weight hyaluronic acid (LMW-HA) and oligomeric hyaluronic acid (Oligo-HA), degradation products of HA, possess distinct biological activities compared with HMW-HA and thereby substantially expand the application range of HA.

1.1 Biological Activities of Low-Molecular-Weight and Oligomeric Hyaluronic Acid

The biological effects of LMW-HA and Oligo-HA depend on their molecular weight.

Fig 1. Comparison of Hyaluronic Acids with Different Molecular Weights

• Angiogenesis and Wound Healing: High-Molecular-Weight Hyaluronic Acid (HMW-HA) inhibits blood vessel formation. In contrast, Low-Molecular-Weight Hyaluronic Acid (LMW-HA), especially oligomeric fragments, promotes the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells. Therefore, LMW-HA accelerates angiogenesis. This process supports wound healing and tissue repair.
• Immune Regulation: HMW-HA has anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties. However, LMW-HA acts as an agonist of Toll-like receptors, which activate dendritic cells and macrophages. This activation stimulates the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and triggers immune responses. Because of this, LMW-HA is a promising candidate for antitumor immunity and vaccine adjuvants.
• Antioxidant Stress: Oligo-HA can scavenge free radicals to protect cells from oxidative damage. This property is generating growing interest in anti-aging and neuroprotection research.
• Promotion of Cell Proliferation and Migration: LMW-HA penetrates the skin barrier more effectively than HMW-HA. It encourages the proliferation of keratinocytes and fibroblasts, which helps in skin repair and regeneration.

1.2 Preparation for Low-Molecular-Weight and Oligomeric Hyaluronic Acid

Preparation of LMW-HA and Oligo-HA mainly relies on scission of intra-glycosidic bonds in the hyaluronic acid backbone. The three major approaches include physical, chemical, and enzymatic degradation. And each possesses different advantages and disadvantages regarding the mechanism of degradation, product molecular weight distribution, cost, and ecological impact.

2. Physical Degradation

Physical methods rely on external energy to disrupt chemical bonds in the HA polymer chain.

2.1 Thermal Degradation

This method relies on the principle of high temperature causing random cleavage of HA chains. The technique is quite simple and inexpensive, since no additional reagents are required. However, the process cannot be precisely controlled, and products obtained often have broad distributions of molecular weight. High temperatures may also lead to some changes in structure, affecting product purity and bioactivity.

2.2 Radiation Degradation

Gamma radiation or electron beams are used on HA solutions to create free radicals that cleave the glycosidic bonds. This method enables one to perform both degradation and sterilization in a very effective and concurrent manner. The main drawbacks of this method are high investment costs of equipment, safety risks, and complicated mechanisms of degradation that are very likely to be followed by side reactions, impairing the reproducibility of the structure of the final product.

2.3 Ultrasonic Degradation

Ultrasound causes cavitation in liquids, leading to the formation of microenvironments with very high temperature and pressure. These shear forces can effectively fragment HA chains. This approach is mild, fast, and environmentally friendly. What’s more, adjusting ultrasound power, duration, and solution concentration enables partial control over the molecular weight of the product. Given these advantages, ultrasonic degradation becomes a common choice for lab-scale and small-scale production.

3. Chemical Degradation

Chemical methods introduce reagents that trigger hydrolysis or redox reactions to break HA chains.

3.1 Acid or Alkaline Degradation

Under strong acid or alkaline conditions, such as HCl and NaOH, respectively, hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond proceeds in HA. Acidic hydrolysis primarily cleaves β-1,4 linkages of glucuronic acid, whereas alkaline hydrolysis predominantly breaks β-1,3 bonds of N-acetylglucosamine. Although this route is cheap and fast, it suffers from being harsh, and the process control is difficult, generally resulting in over-degradation products such as monosaccharides. The subsequent neutralization step and desalination further complicate the process and involve the generation of chemical waste.

3.2 Oxidative Degradation

Oxidation agents, including hydrogen peroxide and sodium periodate, can degrade HA effectively. The Vc/H₂O₂ redox system has attracted widespread interest because of its relatively mild and controllable reaction. The hydroxyl radicals produced in the process may attack the glycosidic bonds. Molecular weight could be reasonably well-controlled by adjusting the ratio, concentration, and reaction time of Vc and H₂O₂. However, it is possible that oxidation not only cleaves the glycosidic bonds but may also change the structure of hydroxyl groups on the HA chain, which may affect the chemical structure and bioactivity of the final product.

4. Enzymatic Degradation

Enzymatic degradation employs highly specific hyaluronidases to catalyze HA breakdown, representing the most promising approach for industrial production.

4.1 What are Hyaluronidases

Hyaluronidases are enzymes that specifically hydrolyze β-N-acetylhexosaminidic bonds in HA. Hyaluronidases are mainly classified by their origin. One type comes from microbes like Streptococci. They act as endoenzymes, which means they cut hyaluronic acid chains at random internal positions. As a result, they break down HA very effectively and are often used in industrial production.

Another type is derived from animals. A common example is testicular hyaluronidase. These animal-derived hyaluronidases are also endoenzymes. They are, however, widely used in scientific research and for making medicines.

Enzymatic degradation offers high specificity, requires milder reaction conditions, and produces fewer by-products. What’s more, by controlling the enzyme amount, reaction time, and temperature, products with narrow molecular weight distributions can be obtained.

4.2 Industrial Enzymatic Production for Low-Molecular-Weight and Oligomeric Hyaluronic Acid

Enzymatic degradation is the preferred method for industrial production of LMW-HA and Oligo-HA. A typical process involves several steps.

Fig 2. Enzymatic degradation [1]

1. First, the substrate is prepared. High-molecular-weight HA raw material is dissolved in a suitable buffer solution, forming a uniform mixture.
2. Next step, the enzymatic reaction takes place. A specific amount of microbial hyaluronidase is added to the HA solution. Stirring the mixture under controlled conditions. The temperature is maintained between 37–50°C, and the pH is kept at an optimal level.
3. During the reaction, the process is monitored. Viscosity changes are tracked in real time. Alternatively, molecular weight changes are followed. This is done using a viscometer or high-performance liquid chromatography.
4. The reaction is stopped when the target molecular weight is reached. Termination is achieved by raising the temperature. For example, heating above 80°C denatures the enzyme. Alternatively, changing the pH can also stop the reaction.
5. Finally, purification and drying are performed. The enzymatic hydrolysate is filtered. It is decolorized using activated carbon. Alcohol precipitation is then carried out. Centrifugation separates the product. The final powder is obtained through spray drying or freeze-drying.

This process can be precisely controlled. Suitable enzyme types are selected, reaction parameters are optimized, and immobilized enzyme technology may be used. Such controls enable reproducible results. Product molecular weight can be regulated from thousands to hundreds of thousands of Daltons to ensure the products meet various application requirements.

5. Conclusion

Low-molecular-weight hyaluronic acid and oligomeric hyaluronic acid have tremendous potential in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and functional foods, owing to their unique biological activities. The three major routes presently developed for their production include physical, chemical, and enzymatic degradations. Of these, enzymatic degradation of hyaluronic acid presents the best option for industrial precision production on a large scale because of its high efficiency, high specificity, mild conditions, and excellent controllability.

[1] Enzymatic Production of Low-Molecular-Weight Hyaluronan and Its Oligosaccharides: A Review and Prospects. Bo Pang, Hao Wang, Hao Huang, Lizhi Liao. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2022 70 (44), 14129-14139. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c05709

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How Does Melatonin Help You Sleep?

It’s essential first to understand how it functions in the human body.

Melatonin, often referred to as the “sleep hormone,” is primarily secreted by the pineal gland in the brain. Its production is regulated by light exposure. When night falls and ambient light dims, the retina signals the brain, prompting the pineal gland to increase melatonin secretion. Think of this substance as the body’s natural “sleep switch”—it tells your brain and body, “It’s dark, time to prepare for sleep.”

The pineal gland secretes melatonin

More specifically, melatonin helps shorten the time it takes to fall asleep and reduces nighttime awakenings, thereby improving overall sleep quality.

Melatonin secretion is influenced by two key factors:

Circadian Rhythm: Generally, melatonin levels decrease during the day and gradually rise at night. The secretion level at night directly affects sleep quality. Disruption of the circadian rhythm can lead to abnormal melatonin production.

Age: As people age, melatonin secretion declines. In the elderly, melatonin levels may drop to just one-tenth of their peak, making them more prone to sleep disorders.

Circadian rhythm: Melatonin and cortisol cycles, Image source: Life’s Chemistry Press

Melatonin Only Treats Two Types of Insomnia

One type is age-related primary insomnia. With aging, the natural decline in melatonin production makes older adults more susceptible to sleep issues. For this type of insomnia, melatonin supplementation is generally effective—particularly for patients over 55, with treatment durations of 6–12 months showing notable improvements in sleep quality and good safety profiles.

The other type is sleep disorders caused by circadian rhythm disruptions, commonly seen in shift workers or travelers with jet lag. These result from inverted sleep-wake cycles disturbing natural melatonin secretion. In such cases, appropriate melatonin use can help realign the melatonin rhythm with the sleep cycle and enhance sleep quality.

However, melatonin is not effective for secondary insomnia caused by underlying health conditions, psychological issues, or emotional fluctuations. Since these are unrelated to reduced melatonin secretion, supplementing with melatonin won’t help.

Is Melatonin Safe?

In medical practice, melatonin is recognized for several advantages: it’s endogenous, effective at low doses, low in toxicity, and non-habit-forming.

Many studies indicate that short-term, low-dose melatonin has minimal impact on the body. Especially when compared to some prescription sleep aids, it shows no significant side effects. As a result, melatonin is not strictly regulated in the United States.

That said, there’s no consistent conclusion regarding the long-term safety of melatonin. Some studies suggest that long-term overuse may interfere with the body’s natural melatonin production. Excessive intake can also lead to drowsiness and reduced mental alertness.

How Should Melatonin Be Taken?

Since melatonin clears from the body relatively quickly, it’s best taken 1–2 hours before bedtime.

For most adults simply looking to improve sleep, starting with a low dose of 0.5 mg to 1 mg is the wisest and safest approach. If ineffective, the dose can be gradually increased, though it’s generally not recommended to exceed 5–10 mg.

It’s especially important to note that melatonin isn’t suitable for everyone. The following groups should avoid it:

① Pregnant or breastfeeding women

② Individuals with depression or psychiatric conditions

③ Those operating vehicles or machinery

④ Adolescents and individuals with autoimmune diseases

Additionally, melatonin can interact with various medications, potentially reducing their efficacy. It should not be taken together with drugs such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or indomethacin.

Stanford Chemicals Company (SCC) supplies 99% pure melatonin powder, along with a wide range of other food and nutraceutical raw materials such as Chondroitin Sulfate, Vitamin K3, Dihydromyricetin, Magnolol…

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1. What is Rheology?

Rheology is the science that studies the deformation and flow of matter. It bridges the gap between elasticity (like a spring, which can recover its shape) and fluid mechanics (like water, which flows). It answers the question: How will this material respond when I push, pull, or stir it?

2. What is Rheological Properties of Hyaluronic Acid?

Hyaluronic acid solutions are not simple, water-like liquids. They are typical non-Newtonian fluids, and their rheological properties are mainly reflected in the following aspects:

–High Shear-Thinning

This is the most well-known and crucial rheological property of hyaluronic acid.

Phenomenon: At rest or under low shear rates, it is very viscous, even gel-like. However, when subjected to high shear rates (e.g., rapid stirring, application massage, or injection through a fine needle), its viscosity drops dramatically, becoming as fluid as water.

Principle: At rest, the long-chain HA molecules entangle with each other, forming a vast, disordered network structure that creates high resistance to flow. Under high shear, these long chains temporarily align in the direction of flow, disentangling from each other, which significantly reduces flow resistance.

Application Examples:

• Aesthetic Injections:High-concentration Hyaluronic acid fillers are very viscous before injection. The shear-thinning property is key: it allows the viscosity to decrease as it’s pushed through the syringe and needle, making injection feasible. Once inside the tissue, the shear force disappears, and it instantly recovers its high viscosity, providing support and volume.
• Skincare Application:When you rub a serum between your palms, it feels thinner. But after applying it to the face, it recovers its viscosity, allowing it to adhere well to the skin.

–Viscoelasticity

Hyaluronic acid exhibits properties of both a viscous liquid and an elastic solid.

When you rapidly compress or stretch it, it can temporarily resist deformation and partially recover its shape after the force is removed. This property allows it to cushion impacts and protect tissues and cells. For example, in synovial fluid, the elasticity of HA helps cushion the impact between bones during jumping or running.

Conversely, under slow, continuous force, it flows like a liquid and dissipates energy. Thus, in joints, the viscosity of hyaluronic acid provides lubrication for smooth movement.

–Pseudoplasticity and Thixotropy

These properties are related to shear-thinning but have subtle differences.

• Pseudoplasticity: Refers to instantaneous shear-thinning and recovery. It thins immediately when force is applied and thickens immediately when the force is removed.
• Thixotropy: Refers to the viscosity taking some time to recover to its initial value after the shear force is removed. This is like ketchup: you shake it (applying shear) to thin it, and after pouring, it doesn’t thicken back instantly but takes a few seconds to recover.

Why Are Rheological Properties So Important?

These properties directly determine the function and application efficacy of hyaluronic acid in various fields:

In Aesthetic Medicine and Healthcare:

Rheological properties determine a filler’s lifting capacity, molding capability, injection smoothness, and persistence in the body. A well-designed HA filler must have precisely controlled rheological performance. Furthermore, appropriate viscoelasticity can help reduce injection pain and post-procedural swelling. When used as a viscoelastic agent in ophthalmic surgery or injected into joint cavities for arthritis treatment, its rheological properties provide protection and lubrication.

In Skincare:

The shear-thinning property provides a smooth, easy-to-spread experience. Its high viscoelasticity forms a breathable, moisturizing film on the skin’s surface, locking in moisture and providing a tightening effect. Whether an Hyaluronic acid serum feels slippery and non-greasy or sticky and stringy depends entirely on the rheological properties determined by the molecular weight and concentration of the hyaluronic acid used.

In Biological Functions:

In the extracellular matrix and synovial fluid, the rheological properties of hyaluronic acid are crucial for maintaining tissue structural integrity, regulating cell migration, and transmitting mechanical signals.

Summary

The rheological properties of hyaluronic acid are the scientific code describing “how it flows and deforms under force.” It is not a single parameter but a collection of behaviors (like shear-thinning, viscoelasticity). Understanding these properties not only explains why HA has certain sensory characteristics and efficacy in skincare and aesthetic products but is also the core scientific basis for designing and optimizing related products. Stanford Chemicals Company offers sodium hyaluronate powders with varying molecular weights and viscoelastic properties.

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Sodium hyaluronate and potassium hyaluronate—what’s the difference between these two similar ingredients?

Sodium Hyaluronate and Potassium Hyaluronate: Derivatives of Hyaluronic Acid

First, A key concept is that both sodium hyaluronate and potassium hyaluronate are derivatives of hyaluronic acid.

Hyaluronic acid itself is a large polysaccharide molecule. It has an unstable structure and is difficult to use directly. Turning it into a salt form greatly improves its stability and broadens its applications. So, whether it’s the “sodium” or “potassium” form, the core substance that provides moisturizing and reparative benefits to the skin is still hyaluronic acid. The fundamental difference lies in the cation—sodium ion (Na⁺) or potassium ion (K⁺).

Sodium Hyaluronate and Potassium Hyaluronate: the Difference in Molecular Weight

From a molecular weight perspective, there is no inherent difference between the two. Commercially available sodium and potassium hyaluronate products both cover a full range from low to high molecular weights. Differences in molecular weight do not come from the type of counterion but from the degree of polymerization controlled during manufacturing. Therefore, when discussing molecular weight, the key is to refer to the specific product’s specifications—not to assume one salt type naturally has a higher or lower molecular weight.

That said, the counterion does slightly affect hydration capacity, solution viscosity, and ionic strength. For example, at the same concentration and molecular weight, sodium ions have a smaller ionic radius and higher charge density. This allows them to attract water molecules more strongly, forming a thicker and more stable hydration layer. In comparison, potassium ions have lower charge density, resulting in a thinner and looser hydration layer. However, this difference is usually not decisive in practical applications.

	Sodium Hyaluronate	Potassium Hyaluronate
Core Structure	Long-chain hyaluronic acid polysaccharide
Structure
Molecular Formula	C₂₈H₄₄N₂NaO₂₃⁺	C₂₈H₄₄KN₂O₂₃⁺
Bound ions	Na⁺	K⁺

Sodium Hyaluronate and Potassium Hyaluronate: the Difference in Applications

1. Joint Injections and Medical Aesthetics

In this field, high molecular weight sodium hyaluronate is the dominant choice—especially for joint injections and dermal fillers. Its long-chain molecules form a highly viscoelastic 3D network in tissues. This provides excellent mechanical support and lubrication.

In orthopedics, this viscous supplementation therapy effectively relieves joint pain and improves function. In aesthetic medicine, sodium hyaluronate gels are cross-linked to enhance stability and longevity. They are widely used for wrinkle filling, facial contouring, and soft tissue volume restoration.

Potassium hyaluronate, on the other hand, is used differently in medicine. Its applications are often linked to the physiological role of potassium ions. A typical use is in certain ophthalmic surgeries, like cataract surgery, where it serves as a component of viscoelastic protective agents. Potassium ions are a key component of aqueous humor and are more compatible with ocular tissues. Potassium hyaluronate is also used in some oral supplements.

2. Skincare

In skincare, molecular weight determines penetration and function. Whether it’s the sodium or potassium form, both follow the same rules regarding molecular weight:

• High molecular weight: Cannot penetrate the skin. It forms a breathable hydrating film on the surface, locks in moisture effectively, and acts as a physical barrier.
• Low molecular weight: Can penetrate into deeper skin layers for intensive hydration.

Potassium hyaluronate is quite common in skincare, especially in formulas that focus on soothing and balancing the skin’s microenvironment. Potassium ions act as co-factors in the biosynthesis of skin ceramides. So, in theory, they can indirectly support skin barrier health.

3. Food and Health Supplements

Oral hyaluronic acid is taken to improve skin hydration and relieve joint discomfort. Studies suggest that low molecular weight hyaluronic acid (including both sodium and potassium salts) may be better absorbed in the intestines. In this area, sodium hyaluronate is the most studied and widely used form, with substantial clinical trial evidence in humans. Potassium hyaluronate is also used in some dietary supplements.

Summary

Both sodium hyaluronate and potassium hyaluronate are derivatives of hyaluronic acid. Their core difference lies not in the polysaccharide structure or molecular weight range, but in the counterion they carry—and the subtle physicochemical and biological effects that result. Sodium hyaluronate holds a dominant position due to its well-established use in medicine and extensive supporting research. Potassium hyaluronate, however, offers unique value in specific cases—such as ophthalmic surgery (where potassium ions play a physiological role) and certain skincare products focused on barrier repair.

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